Biofuels

Biofuels are organic fuels that are grown. The most common biofuels like corn ethanol compete with food for scarce agricultural land. More advanced algae-based biofuels may allow us to grow much of our fuel.

Image Source: Euractiv

Biofuels

By the Numbers

100 billion litres

Global production of ethanol and biodiesl in 2010

546 million acres

Farmland it would take to replace the U.S.'s entire gasoline use with biofuels

50%

Of gasoline sold in the United States contains 10$ ethanol

1,000

Service stations in Canada that sell 5-10% ethanol blends

25-30%

Reduction in mileage when 85% ethanol fuel is used

630,000 tonnes

Of Canadian corn used in ethanol production in 2006

Last Updated: May 2012

Charlotte Helston

Using plant and animal biomass to fuel vehicles may sound like a new concept, but the technology dates back as far as the 1820s, when American inventor Samuel Morey used ethanol and turpentine to power an internal combustion engine. Later that century, Rudolph Diesel fueled engines with peanut oil. Henry Ford's Model T was calibrated to run on a range of ethanol/gasoline blends at the beginning of the 20th century, but soon after the market was flooded with cheap petroleum fuels that overshadowed biofuels. Ethanol fell off the radar until the oil crises of the 1970s.

Invented, forgotten and revived by necessity, so goes the story of biofuels. It was in response to soaring oil prices that countries like Brazil and the United States launched fuel ethanol programs to avoid importing oil. Other countries like China, Kenya, Zimbabwe, and European countries, Germany chief among them, embarked on similar programs. In recent decades the drive to reduce greenhouse gas emissions have encouraged an expanding biofuels industry, concentrated mainly in Brazil, the US, Europe, and Canada.

It is generally agreed that emissions levels of biofuels are less than those of fossil fuels, though by how much is a matter of debate. The emissions reductions (from as little as 7% in one study, to as high as 80% in another) are a tradeoff for the range of environmental and social consequences of increased biofuels use. Problems like food scarcity, rising grain prices, deforestation, and the loss of global biodiversity are closely intertwined with biofuels. Because of these, biofuels are not the straightforward solution to climate change that many had hoped them to be.

The outlook for biofuels is complex. With current practices, and corn dominating as a feedstock for ethanol, biofuel technology can be extremely destructive to humans and the environment. Measures to address the "food versus fuel debate" include advancements in next generation fuels (non-food fuels) like algae and cellulosic fuel crops such as switchgrass. Though promising in many regards, there is no certainty as to when, or if, these technologies will develop to a point where they become cost effective.

  1. Worldwatch Institute. 2006. Biofuels for Transport: Global Potential and Implications for Energy and Agriculture. Prepared by Worldwatch Institute for the German Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection in coordination with the German Agency for Technical Cooperation and the German Agency of Renewable Resources. Earthscan. London.
  2. Natural Resources Canada. 2010. Next-generation biofuels. Alternative Fuel Facts. Retrieved at: http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/transportation/alternative-fuels/programs/next-gen-fund/next-gen-biofuels.cfm?attr=8.
  3. Yacobucci, B. 2009. Fuel Ethanol: Background and Public Policy Issues. Ch 2. Ethanol and Biofuels Production, Standards and Potential. Ed. W. Leland. Nova Science Publishers. New York.

How Biofuels Work

The Costa Pinto sugarcane and ethanol production plant near Sao Paulo, Brazil.
The Costa Pinto sugarcane and ethanol production plant near Sao Paulo, Brazil.

Biofuels are derived from biomass (recently living organisms) commonly produced from plants, animals and microorganisms, but also from organic wastes (the metabolic byproducts of animals). Fossil fuels also use once living material; however, the distinction is that biofuel uses recently living biomass, while fossil fuels use ancient biomass that has chemically altered to its current state. When used to generate energy, biomass is considered carbon-neutral because it releases no more carbon into the atmosphere than the organism absorbed in its lifetime. As a result, bioenergy is seen as a way to reduce the amount of new carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere when it replaces non-renewable sources of energy.

The term biofuel encompasses solid biomass, liquid fuels and biogases. The following section offers a description of how various materials are used in the three main types of biofuels: ethanol, biodiesel and biogas. Let's begin with ethanol.

Ethanol

Similar to the process of winemaking, ethanol production involves the fermentation of starchy, sugar filled food (corn, grains, potatoes) to create alcohol.

Share of world ethanol production by feedstock in 2008.
Maize (corn) is the most important ethanol feedstock, though sugarcane is catching up.

Ethanol is primarily used as transport fuel in vehicles. A blend of 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline is known as E10, or "gasohol." E10 Unleaded is the most common blend of ethanol and gasoline and is approved by every major automobile maker for use in their vehicles. The ethanol used in E10 is highly distilled and dehydrated to produce a high-octane, water-free alcohol, because water mixtures cannot be dissolved into gasoline. More than 50% of the gasoline that is available in the United States today contains at least 10% ethanol. Most of this is E10 Unleaded. In Canada there are a large number of service stations where E10 fuels can be purchased; some commercial vehicle fleets are even now exploring an E15 blend. It should be noted however that ethanol blended fuels are not recommended for vehicles manufactured before the 1980s.

E85, a ratio of 85% ethanol to 15% gasoline, pushes the blend even further and is rapidly becoming a major player in the alternative fuel marketplace of the United States. This ethanol heavy fuel can only be used in flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs), which are specially designed to run on gasoline, E85 or any combination of the two. Just like all ethanol blends, the lower energy content means E85 results in about 25-30% fewer miles per gallon.

An experimental bioreactor which ferments biomass and produces cellulosic ethanol used by the U.S. Department of Energy.
An experimental bioreactor which ferments biomass and produces cellulosic ethanol. by the U.S. Department of Energy.

The use of ethanol-diesel fuel blends are growing around the world, and are designed to provide renewable, cleaner burning fuel alternatives for off-road equipment, buses, semi-trucks and other vehicles that run on diesel fuel. With the addition of ethanol and other fuel additives to diesel, the characteristic black diesel smoke is eliminated and there are significant reductions in particulate matter, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxide emissions.

It is also possible to use ethanol for cooking as a replacement for wood, charcoal, propane, or as a substitute for lighting fuels, such as kerosene.

Cellulosic biomass is becoming an appealing surrogate for the more conventional edible feedstocks, like maize and sugarcane. It is the argument as to which aspects of biomass should be used in biofuels production that has created the food versus fuel debate. New technologies use processes like cellulosic hydrolysis to convert cellulose to ethanol. The use of cellulosic feed stocks is still in the early stages of technological development. Although there are more plentiful and readily available sources of cellulosic biomass than traditional feedstocks such as corn, the conversion process remains both extensive and costly. Many ethanol producing facilities are running test projects with cellulosic biomass, including a bioenergy corporation, Iogen Corp., in Ottawa, Ontario.

Biodiesel

Biodiesel is a non-toxic, biodegradable, and renewable fuel converted from oils (such as canola and soy oils, animal fats, recycled cooking oils and restaurant waste grease). Research is underway to determine if the oils from algae could be used for the development of biodiesel. In a process called transesterification, the oil is brought into contact with an alcohol, like methanol, and a catalyst, like sodium hydroxide resulting in the production of glycerine and the result we call biodiesel. Biodiesel can be used in its pure form (B100) in place of conventional diesel, or blended with it, in forms like B2 (2% diesel), B5, or B20, all of which most diesel engines are able to run on. Similar to ethanol diesel, biodiesel has a higher cetane rating, which can improve starting and reduce black smoke emissions.

Biofuels cartoon

Developed from animal and or plant biomass with a lifecycle of a few years, biodiesel reduces emissions of harmful greenhouse gases, smog and acid-rain causing particles emissions, and carcinogens.

Biogas

Biogas is mostly methane (natural gas) and carbon dioxide. The required methane can be taken from landfill gas, sewage sludge gas, corn silage or liquid manure.

The main ingredient for biogas production is called the feedstock, and may include manure, sewage sludge or food waste. The feedstock is then pre-processed in some way, either by simply mixing to create a homogenous substance, or with complex processes (like hydrolysis and micronyzation) to maximize the production of biogas. The prepared feedstock is then introduced to anaerobic digesters -- microorganisms that break down biodegradable matter in the absence of oxygen. The first digester converts the fats, carbohydrates and proteins in the organic matter into simple acids like acetic acid and carbon dioxide. Then, a second type of digester changes the acids into methane and carbon dioxide. This gas mixture is then collected and used as fuel.

1m3 of biogas has approximately 5-7.5 kWh/m3 which is equivalent to:

  • 0.5 kg Diesel, Kerosene (approx. 12 kWh/kg)
  • 1.3 kg Wood (approx. 4.5 kWh/kg)
  • 1.2 kg Cow dung (approx. 5 kWh/kg dry matter)
  • 1.3 kg Plant residues (approx. 4.5 kWh/kg d.m.)
  • 0.7 kg Hard coal (approx. 8.5 kWh/kg)
  • 1.1 m3 City gas (approx. 5.3 kWh/m3)
  • 0.24 m3 Propane (approx. 25 kWh/m3)

Biogas in Canada has a wide range of potential applications, at sites like landfills, municipal wastewater treatment facilities, and farm-based operations, as well as in municipal solid waste (MSW) digestion, the pulp and paper industry, and the food and beverage industry.

1st, 2nd, and 3rd Generation Biofuels

First generation biofuels are produced with conventional technologies and conventional feedstocks such as seeds, grains or whole plants that are also food sources. First generation feedstocks include: corn, sugarcane, wheat and other grains.

Miscanthus.
Miscanthus.

Second generation biofuels offer the possibility of using non-food sources as feedstocks. Such materials include: waste biomass, the stalks of wheat, corn stover, wood, and special energy crops like Miscanthus. The technology involved in this branch of biofuels is called BtL (Biomass to Liquid). Products under development include: biohydrogen, biomethanol, DMF, Bio-DME, Fischer-Tropsch diesel, biohydrogen diesel, and mixed alcohols. This technology is not yet cost comparative to first generation biofuels.

Third generation biofuels are the newest category of biofuels. The most significant feedstock for this type is algae. Algae is cultivated for the production of triglycerides to produce biodiesel, in much the same way as biodiesel is produced with second generation feedstocks.

Second and third generation biofuels are also called advanced, or next-generation biofuels.

  1. BC Bioenergy Strategy. 2010. Retrieved at: http://www.energyplan.gov.bc.ca/bioenergy/PDF/BioEnergy_Plan_005_0130_web0000.pdf.
  2. Natural Resources Canada. 2011. Ethanol. Alternative Fuel Information. Retrieved at: http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/transportation/alternative-fuels/fuel-facts/ethanol/about-ethanol.cfm?attr=16.
  3. National Corn Growers Association. 2008. Retrieved at: http://www.ethanolfacts.com/ETHL2008/page.php?pgID=2
  4. Natural Resources Canada. 2011. Ethanol. Alternative Fuel Information. Retrieved at: http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/transportation/alternative-fuels/fuel-facts/ethanol/about-ethanol.cfm?attr=16.
  5. U.S. Department of Energy. 2011. Ethanol. Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved at: http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/ethanol.shtml.
  6. National Corn Growers Association. 2008. Retrieved at: http://www.ethanolfacts.com/ETHL2008/page.php?pgID=2
  7. Sissine, F. 2009. Renewable Energy: Background and Issues for the 110th Congress. Ch 1. Ethanol and Biofuels Production, Standards and Potential. Ed. W. Leland. Nova Science Publishers. New York.
  8. De Castro, Julio. 2007. Biofuels -- An overview. Retrieved from: http://www.biofuel-africa.org/2007/IMG/pdf/Biofuels_Final_Report.pdf.
  9. Canadian Renewable Fuels Association. 2010. Retrieved at: http://www.greenfuels.org/en/resource-centre/biodiesel.aspx
  10. Canadian Renewable Fuels Association. 2010. Retrieved at: http://www.greenfuels.org/en/resource-centre/biodiesel.aspx
  11. House, Harold. 2007. Alternative energy sources -- biogas production. London Swine Conference -- Today's Challenges... Tomorrow's Opportunities. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs. Retrieved at: http://www.londonswineconference.ca/proceedings/2007/LSC2007_HHouse.pdf
  12. Natural Resources Canada. 2010. Next-generation biofuels. Alternative Fuel Facts. Retrieved at: http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/transportation/alternative-fuels/programs/next-gen-fund/next-gen-biofuels.cfm?attr=8.

Geography of Biofuels

First generation feedstocks are generally best cultivated in agricultural regions where there's an abundant supply of water. Presently, corn production for ethanol is focused in the US's fertile Corn Belt, and sugarcane production for ethanol is in Brazil. Many African countries also cultivate feedstocks including corn, sugarcane, molasses, and grains.

Growing the fuel

Biofuel feedstocks, particularly corn for ethanol, require large amounts of land. One report claims that "U.S. gasoline consumption was 134 billion gallons in 2003. It would take more than 546 million acres of U.S. farmland to replace all of our current gasoline use with corn ethanol." Other energy experts affirm that if we were to replace all fossil fuels with biomass energy, we would need twice as much farmland than exists on earth.

Land Requirements

Land for biofuel production is expected to come from the conversion of forests into agricultural land. Biofuel develpoment means pasture lands and multi-crop farms have already begun transforming into huge sugarcane monocultures in Brazil. The effect on animal habitats are extremely detrimental. Further, deforestation could affect the hydrological cycle and the climate, reducing rainfall and causing rising temperatures. The planet's forests also act as important "sinks" for absorbing carbon dioxide, the primary greenhouse gas. Cutting them down has the same climate impact as burning fossil fuels. Humanity is already failing to achieve a sustainable balance between farmland demand and forests. Biofuels are only helping to tip the scales in the wrong direction.

  1. De Castro, Julio. 2007. Biofuels -- An overview. Retrieved from: http://www.biofuel-africa.org/2007/IMG/pdf/Biofuels_Final_Report.pdf.
  2. Avery 2006, p.6
  3. Avery 2006, p.6
  4. Worldwatch Institute. 2006. Biofuels for Transport: Global Potential and Implications for Energy and Agriculture. Prepared by Worldwatch Institute for the German Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection in coordination with the German Agency for Technical Cooperation and the German Agency of Renewable Resources. Earthscan. London.

Economics of Biofuels

Biofuel development is being accelerated through mandates, subsidies, and favourable trade policies across the globe. Canada is enforcing a new mandate for an average of 5% ethanol in gasoline sold since late 2010. A mandate for an average of 2% biodiesel content in diesel distillates was implemented on July 1, 2011. If Canada aims to support these mandates with domestic production, rather than relying on imports it will have to boost production of ethanol by 7%, and biodiesel by 450%. The federal government has said that the combined fuel requirements will reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to four megatonnes -- the equivalent of removing one million vehicles from the road.

Ethanol

An ethanol-gasoline dual use petrol station pump in Brazil.
An ethanol-gasoline dual use petrol station pump in Brazil.

The cheapest ethanol production is in Brazil, where a combination of readily available resources and cheap labour makes prices of about $0.20 per litre possible. Grain-based ethanol can cost up to 50% more to produce in North America than this Brazilian cane-based fuel. A major factor is contrasting wages; an average Brazilian worker in the cane industry made $3.03 per hour in 2005, while their American counterparts raked in $23.17. In addition, feedstock prices go from as little as $0.08 per litre in Brazil, to $0.24 in the US. Part of what governs feedstock cost is the amount of fertilizer required. Sugar cane plantations use about 57 lbs of nitrogen per acre, while corn needs 130 lbs to achieve profitable results.

Cellulosic feedstocks like switchgrass are poised to take off if technology can streamline the conversion process.

Cellulosic feedstocks like switchgrass are poised to take off if technology can streamline the conversion process. However, a study by the Center for Agricultural and Rural Development at Iowa State University concluded that farmers would not be willing to shift to dedicated cellulosic crops unless they offered net returns comparable to that of corn. The current view is that cellulosic crops like switchgrass cannot offer farmers the same incentives as maize can, unless they receive substantial subsidies.

Biodiesel

The biodiesel industry has lagged behind ethanol due to the high cost of vegetable-based oils for feedstocks. When combined with the relatively low price of petroleum diesel the biodiesel industry has another large hurdle to overcome. Feedstocks alone can account for 70% of the manufacturing costs, which has historically rendered it more expensive than petro-diesel--in some cases costing twice as much. But with the recent increases in petroleum prices, and supportive tax and production incentives, biodiesel is now becoming cost competitive with petro-diesel. Waste oils also have a limited availability so unless advances are made in the use of next-generation feedstocks such as algae, biodiesel will only be able to progress so far.

In the 2004 budget, the Province of British Columbia amended the Alternative Motor Fuel Tax Act, allowing the biodiesel portion of a biodiesel blend to be exempt from the provincial motor fuel tax. Although biodiesel is not yet being manufactured commercially in BC, it has one of the largest markets for biodiesel in the country.

Job Creation

The production of biofuels motivates a large number of jobs in the agricultural sector, the agro-industrial sector (concerned with distillation and processing of by-products), the commercialization of new market commodities, and in new product manufacture. It is predicted that this range of employment would drive up incomes, especially in rural areas. This could potentially lead to enhanced opportunities for education and health care in the developing world where many feedstocks are cultivated.

The anticipated rise of cellulosic biomass could have negative effects on the world's corn growers. If cellulosic feedstocks become the new demand, farmers' investments in corn ethanol would be destroyed. Additionally, cellulosic crops cannot offer farmers the same profits earned from maize production, unless sufficient subsidies are incorporated.

Food versus fuel

The production of biofuels has two things in common with the production of food: demand for land and water. Food and fuel are two things humans consume a lot of. Both can be seen as necessities, though we have had many types of fuels throughout human history. As the global population continues to grow, we face a growing demand for both food and fuel. At the same time we need to limit the emissions of the pollutants known to drive climate change. The world's consumption of food and fuel is inextricably linked to our environmental problems and solutions. Biofuels present an opportunity to address the epochal challenge of anthropogenic climate change. But will GHG emissions reductions come at the cost of our food supply or our forests?

An ethanol plant under construction in Iowa.
An ethanol plant under construction in Iowa.

Growing demand from biofuel producers has been proven to affect the price of associated grains, especially corn. Additionally, farmers are converting diverse crop lands to mono-crop farms because fuel crops are often more lucrative than food crops. Already in Brazil, orange plantations are in major decline as sugarcane production increases. Farmers are cutting down tropical rainforests and converting them into land for valuable fuel crops.

Cellulosic, or non-food feedstocks, including waste products like recycled paper and rice hulls, or fuel crops like switchgrass, might offer a solution to the food-fuel debate. Cellulosic biomass encompasses the following benefits:

  • No competition with food supply
  • Productive use of otherwise wasted material
  • Potential avoidance of long-distance transport resulting from the diversity of potential feedstocks and the possibility of constructing biorefineries close to market
  • Diversity of crops strengthens resilience

Cellulosic biomass, as the name implies, is full of cellulose. Cellulose is fibrous and cannot be directly fermented. Instead, manufacturers must first break it down into usable molecules. A study conducted in 2000 found that production costs increased by 70% when ethanol production was switched from corn to cellulosic biomass. Until the technology exists such that the use of cellulosic feedstocks is financially feasible there will continue to be competition between the markets for food and fuel.

  1. Taylor, S. 2011. Canada proposes July 1 start for biodiesel rule. Reuters. Ed. Frank McGurty. Retrieved at: http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/02/10/canada-biodiesel-idUSN1021406220110210.
  2. Daynard, Karen. ,Daynard, Terry. 2011. What are the effects of biofuels and bioproducts on the environment, crop and food prices and world hunger? KD Communications. Retrieved at: http://gfo.ca/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=HKfOeU3cHTI%3d&tabid=793.
  3. Taylor, S. 2011. Canada proposes July 1 start for biodiesel rule. Reuters. Ed. Frank McGurty. Retrieved at: http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/02/10/canada-biodiesel-idUSN1021406220110210.
  4. Steenblink, Ronald. 2007. Biofuels -- At what cost? Global Subsidies Initiative. Geneva, Switzerland. Retrieved at: http://www.globalsubsidies.org/files/assets/oecdbiofuels.pdf.
  5. Avery 2006, p.6
  6. Avery 2006
  7. Steenblink, Ronald. 2007. Biofuels -- At what cost? Global Subsidies Initiative. Geneva, Switzerland. Retrieved at: http://www.globalsubsidies.org/files/assets/oecdbiofuels.pdf.
  8. Tokgoz, S., A. Elobeid, J. Fabiosa, D. Hayes, B. Babcock, T. Yu, F. Dong, C. Hart, J. Beghin. 2007. Emerging biofuels: Outlook of effects on U.S. grain, oilseed, and livestock markets. Staff Report 07-SR-101, Center for Agricultural and Rural Development, Iowa State University. Ames, Iowa. Retrieved at:http://www.card.iastate.edu/publications/DBS/PDFFiles/07sr101.pdf.
  9. Doherty, Eric. 2008. Biodiesel. For the BC Sustainable Energy Association. Retrieved at: http://www.bcsea.org/learn/get-the-facts/renewable-energy-technologies/biodiesel.
  10. Doherty, Eric. 2008. Biodiesel. For the BC Sustainable Energy Association. Retrieved at: http://www.bcsea.org/learn/get-the-facts/renewable-energy-technologies/biodiesel.
  11. Doherty, Eric. 2008. Biodiesel. For the BC Sustainable Energy Association. Retrieved at: http://www.bcsea.org/learn/get-the-facts/renewable-energy-technologies/biodiesel.
  12. BC Bioenergy Strategy. 2010. Retrieved at: http://www.energyplan.gov.bc.ca/bioenergy/PDF/BioEnergy_Plan_005_0130_web0000.pdf.
  13. De Castro, Julio. 2007. Biofuels -- An overview. Retrieved from: http://www.biofuel-africa.org/2007/IMG/pdf/Biofuels_Final_Report.pdf.
  14. Avery 2006, p.6
  15. Tokgoz, S., A. Elobeid, J. Fabiosa, D. Hayes, B. Babcock, T. Yu, F. Dong, C. Hart, J. Beghin. 2007. Emerging biofuels: Outlook of effects on U.S. grain, oilseed, and livestock markets. Staff Report 07-SR-101, Center for Agricultural and Rural Development, Iowa State University. Ames, Iowa. Retrieved at:http://www.card.iastate.edu/publications/DBS/PDFFiles/07sr101.pdf.
  16. Rathmann, Regis. Szklo, Alexandre. Schaeffer, Roberto. 2010. Land use competition for production of food and liquid biofuels: An analysis of the arguments in the current debate. Renewable Energy. Vol 35:1. Retrieved from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960148109000974.
  17. Yacobucci, B. 2009. Fuel Ethanol: Background and Public Policy Issues. Ch 2. Ethanol and Biofuels Production, Standards and Potential. Ed. W. Leland. Nova Science Publishers. New York.

Environmental Issues with Biofuels

Do biofuels deliver more energy than they take to grow?

An answer to this oft asked question is complex. The subject is controversial, and even scientific research to analyze energy input and output is often charged with bias. Calculations are skewed by what factors are included or excluded, and by inconsistent methods of measuring the energy balance, or EROI.

A study referenced by Julio de Castro reported an energy balance of 8.3 for sugarcane based ethanol, meaning that for every unit of fossil fuels used, 8.3 units of cane ethanol are produced. This is in stark contrast with corn ethanol, which, in the same study, was given a balance of 1.35. While much lower than that of cane ethanol, corn ethanol is still not as poorly balanced as gasoline, which requires 1.23 mJ of fossil fuels to create a single unit (1 mJ) of gasoline, giving it a negative balance.

Switchgrass, the biological poster child of cellulosic feedstocks, was reported in a 2007 study to exhibit an energy balance of 5.4. Some studies have given it a slightly lower balance, though still a positive one. The energy balance "credentials" of switchgrass could mean a massive reversal from grain-derived feedstocks, to cellulosic ones.

Ethanol and Greenhouse Gas Emissions

The emission of greenhouse gases from ethanol production and ethanol usage are interlinked with the debate on EROI, the energy balances. The results are controversial and highly variable due to differences in calculation methods.

Ethanol contains carbon, thus, combustion of the fuel unavoidably emits carbon dioxide. That accounts for the actual burning of ethanol, but its production is responsible for emissions as well. The use of nitrogen based fertilizers, and the running of farm equipment and transport vehicles contribute to the overall fuel-cycle greenhouse gas emissions.

Where biofuels that use plant materials, like corn, save on emissions, it is in their growth stage. Photosynthesis, the process by which plants transform the sun's light into energy, requires the absorption of carbon dioxide. Thus, the growth cycle of the feedstocks can serve as a carbon sink. Essentially, only as much CO2 is released as is absorbed, resulting in a nearly closed CO2 cycle.

Ethanol is a practical alternative energy source that can be used in vehicles right now and which both lowers total GHG emissions and combats smog.

Ethanol is a practical alternative energy source that can be used in vehicles right now and which both lowers total GHG emissions and combats smog. If Canadians are going to succeed in mitigating climate change, we are going to have to develop transportation fuels that don't generate large GHG emissions. Ethanol is one solution where the technology to produce it is immediately available.

One study, cited by Yacobucci, stated overall fuel-cycle greenhouse gas emissions from corn based E10 are about 1% lower than gasoline. The same study gave E85 an about 20% fewer GHG emissions. Natural resources Canada notes that grain-based ethanol can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by as much as 40% on a lifecycle basis. It is unavoidable that these studies are highly variable in their results, making a clear reduction rate difficult to obtain. Often the results are influenced by the bias of the person conducting the research.

Biodiesel and Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Results for biodiesel are also mixed. The majority of studies have found net reductions in emissions for biodiesel, though some have expressed significant emissions increases.

The emissions reductions of going to a B100 biodiesel are quite drastic with the exception of an increase in the emissions of NOx. The changes in emissions (from B20 to B100) are summarized by the National Biodiesel Board to be:

  • Unburned Hydrocarbons: (HC) - 67% reduction 14% reduction
  • Carbon Monoxide (CO) - 48% reduction 10% reduction
  • Particulate Matter (PM) - 47% reduction 10% reduction
  • Sulphur (SOx) - 100% reduction 20% reduction
  • Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) - 10% increase 2% increase

Natural Resources Canada says biodiesel can reduce emissions by up to 60%. A 2009 study found reductions of 35-60%, acknowledging the same possibility that biodiesel could reduce emissions by 60%. It is important to consider the realistic ranges and to not solely report the greatest amount possible, as those numbers are seldom reached.

Integration of the entire biofuel pathway

A common theme amidst all the disagreement on emissions and energy balances, is that, as the Worldwatch Institute says, "The viability of biofuels as low-carbon replacements for oil depends less upon the amount of energy required in production, than upon the type of energy used." The difference in emissions around the production of corn-based ethanol, for instance, can be huge depending on whether nitrogen fertilizers or manure is used, as well as if transport vehicles are run on gasoline or on biofuel. Making biofuels work is not a simple process. It involves careful choice in feedstocks and thoughtful planning of biofuel infrastructure. If employed wisely, biofuels can offer a significant contribution to mitigating climate change.

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  2. De Castro, Julio. 2007. Biofuels -- An overview. Retrieved from: http://www.biofuel-africa.org/2007/IMG/pdf/Biofuels_Final_Report.pdf.
  3. Schmer, M.R., K.P. Vogel, R.B. Mitchell, R.K. Perrin. 2007. Net energy of cellulosic ethanol from switchgrass. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. Retrieved at: http://www.pnas.org/content/105/2/464.full
  4. Yacobucci, B. 2009. Fuel Ethanol: Background and Public Policy Issues. Ch 2. Ethanol and Biofuels Production, Standards and Potential. Ed. W. Leland. Nova Science Publishers. New York.
  5. Worldwatch Institute. 2006. Biofuels for Transport: Global Potential and Implications for Energy and Agriculture. Prepared by Worldwatch Institute for the German Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection in coordination with the German Agency for Technical Cooperation and the German Agency of Renewable Resources. Earthscan. London.
  6. Yacobucci, B. 2009. Fuel Ethanol: Background and Public Policy Issues. Ch 2. Ethanol and Biofuels Production, Standards and Potential. Ed. W. Leland. Nova Science Publishers. New York.
  7. Yacobucci, B. 2009. Fuel Ethanol: Background and Public Policy Issues. Ch 2. Ethanol and Biofuels Production, Standards and Potential. Ed. W. Leland. Nova Science Publishers. New York.
  8. Natural Resources Canada. 2010. Next-generation biofuels. Alternative Fuel Facts. Retrieved at: http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/transportation/alternative-fuels/programs/next-gen-fund/next-gen-biofuels.cfm?attr=8.
  9. Worldwatch Institute. 2006. Biofuels for Transport: Global Potential and Implications for Energy and Agriculture. Prepared by Worldwatch Institute for the German Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection in coordination with the German Agency for Technical Cooperation and the German Agency of Renewable Resources. Earthscan. London.
  10. Natural Resources Canada. 2010. Next-generation biofuels. Alternative Fuel Facts. Retrieved at: http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/transportation/alternative-fuels/programs/next-gen-fund/next-gen-biofuels.cfm?attr=8.
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  12. Worldwatch Institute. 2006. Biofuels for Transport: Global Potential and Implications for Energy and Agriculture. Prepared by Worldwatch Institute for the German Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection in coordination with the German Agency for Technical Cooperation and the German Agency of Renewable Resources. Earthscan. London.

Biofuels Around the World

Current state of biofuels

Globally, the dominant biofuel is ethanol, followed by biodiesel. Biogas is emerging as significant as well, particularly in Europe. In 2010, 85 billion litres of ethanol and 15 billion litres of biodiesel were produced globally. Collectively, this made biofuel production worth 13.3% of the world energy mix; accounting for almost three times more energy than all of the other renewable energies combined.

Renewable energy share of global final energy consumption in 2006.
Traditional biofuels are primarily used in the poorest nations for heating and cooking. Modern transport biofuels still only account for less than a half of a percent of all the energy used in the world for all purposes.

Fuel ethanol production is concentrated in Brazil, where it is concocted from cane sugar, and in the US where it is made primarily from corn. Together, the US and Brazil account for nearly 90% of global ethanol production. Canada, China and Europe make up the final 10%. Biodiesel is significant in Europe where it is created using rapeseed (canola) oil, and in the US and Argentina where it is produced mainly with soybean oil. Biodiesel in Canada is generally made from used cooking oil and animal fat, though a move towards the use of canola and soybean oil is anticipated.

Approximately 15% of global corn production, or 5.7% of total global grain production is devoted to ethanol production. Around 10% of global vegetable oil production is destined for biodiesel production.

How does this affect global food scarcity?

As the demand for crops like corn and canola increases, pressure is increased upon an already stressed sector -- food production. With feedstocks doubling as food crops, the risk for competition between food and fuel has become a contentious ethical dilemma.

After a period of massive reductions in real grain prices (53% between 1975/76 and 2000/01) a 2007/08 spike startled countries around the world. From January 2004 to May 2008, the global price of wheat shot up 108%, rice 224%, corn 88% and soybeans 53%. No consensus on the cause of this surge has been reached; however, ethanol production may have been a factor through its increasing demand.

The timing of the spike certainly coincided with an expansion in ethanol production, though other factors, such as hoarding, export bans and panic buying by governments, must be considered in the prognosis as well. Studies suggest a 20-40% increase in corn prices attributable to biofuel expansion. The rapid growth in ethanol production does raise concerns that price increases for grains could continue to grow at this rate or possibly even higher.

For this reason, biofuels from non-food sources have gained much attention in the past several years. Second and third generation biofuels use feedstocks such as algae and waste biomass, thereby eliminating reliance on food crops. Unfortunately, the easiest feedstocks to convert are still the ones we eat. Non-food sources demand energy-intensive processing, and opponents of biofuel expansion claim they use more energy than they put out.

  1. Daynard, Karen. ,Daynard, Terry. 2011. What are the effects of biofuels and bioproducts on the environment, crop and food prices and world hunger? KD Communications. Retrieved at: http://gfo.ca/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=HKfOeU3cHTI%3d&tabid=793
  2. REN 2010
  3. Daynard, Karen. ,Daynard, Terry. 2011. What are the effects of biofuels and bioproducts on the environment, crop and food prices and world hunger? KD Communications. Retrieved at: http://gfo.ca/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=HKfOeU3cHTI%3d&tabid=793.
  4. Daynard, Karen. ,Daynard, Terry. 2011. What are the effects of biofuels and bioproducts on the environment, crop and food prices and world hunger? KD Communications. Retrieved at: http://gfo.ca/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=HKfOeU3cHTI%3d&tabid=793.
  5. Daynard, Karen. ,Daynard, Terry. 2011.What are the effects of biofuels and bioproducts on the environment, crop and food prices and world hunger? KD Communications. Retrieved at: http://gfo.ca/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=HKfOeU3cHTI%3d&tabid=793.
  6. Daynard, Karen. ,Daynard, Terry. 2011. What are the effects of biofuels and bioproducts on the environment, crop and food prices and world hunger? KD Communications. Retrieved at: http://gfo.ca/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=HKfOeU3cHTI%3d&tabid=793.
  7. Yacobucci, B. 2009. Fuel Ethanol: Background and Public Policy Issues. Ch 2. Ethanol and Biofuels Production, Standards and Potential. Ed. W. Leland. Nova Science Publishers. New York.

Biofuels in Canada

In 2010, Canada's production was 1.83 billion litres of fuel ethanol and 110 million litres of biodiesel. Recent regulations (5% renewable fuel content in gasoline, and 2% in diesel and heating oil) have been presented by the federal government as a scheme that could reduce Canada's annual GHG emissions by four million tonnes.

With the creation of the ecoENERGY for Biofuels Technology Initiative, the Government of Canada has committed to expanding the production and use of cleaner renewable biofuels including ethanol and biodiesel. A four-pronged biofuels strategy has been initiated which includes:

  • Reducing the greenhouse gas (GHS) emissions resulting from fuel use
  • Subsidizing greater production of biofuels ($1.5 billion over 9 years)
  • Accelerating the commercialization of new biofuel technologies
  • Providing new market opportunities for agricultural producers and rural communities

Ethanol

Canadian ethanol is derived mainly from corn, but also from wheat in Western Canada. Ethanol production competes with the livestock industry for the millions of tonnes of Canadian corn produced annually. In 2006, 7% of the 9 million tonnes of corn produced went to ethanol production; with most of the remainder becoming livestock feed. For wheat less than 1% of the 20 million tonnes that was produced in that same year went to ethanol while the rest was exported.

Despite having the raw resources for ethanol production, the priority on livestock feed and export leaves Canada importing biofuels. Canada imported 100 million litres of ethanol from the United States in 2006.

Despite having the raw resources for ethanol production, the priority on livestock feed and export leaves Canada importing biofuels. Canada imported 100 million litres of ethanol from the United States in 2006.

Canada is seen as a prime location for cellulosic feedstock production, with its vast forest and agricultural resources. At present, Ottawa hosts the only cellulosic demonstration plant in Canada, though more are anticipated. $500 million came from the government of Canada to support the Next-Generation Biofuels Fund, which will focus efforts on large-scale demonstration projects for next-generation biofuels.

The aims of the Next-Generation Biofuels Fund as provided by Sustainable Development Technology Canada (SDTC) and the Federal Government are:

  • To facilitate the establishment of first-of-kind, large scale demonstrations facilities for the production of next-generation biofuels and co-products in Canada
  • Improve the sustainable development impacts arising from the production and use of biofuels in Canada
  • Encourage retention and growth of technology expertise and innovation capacity for the production of next-generation biofuels in Canada

Biodiesel

Biodiesel is made mostly from used cooking oil and animal fats that would otherwise go to waste. Biodiesel is also produced from sources such as canola, Canada's dominant vegetable oil. A recent mandate for 2% renewable content in all diesel fuel and heating oil was announced by the federal government, which added to a 5% mandate for renewable fuel in gasoline. Canada will have to increase its annual production of biodiesel from 200 million litres to about 550 million litres to meet the new government standards.

Biofuel plants in Canada, concentrated in Canada's industrial heartland and the prairies.
Biofuel plants in Canada, concentrated in Canada's industrial heartland and the prairies.

Canadian Biofuel Use

E5, a blend of 5% ethanol, is sold in Ontario, E7.5 in Saskatchewan, and E8.5 in Manitoba. The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) noted in 2008 that about 1,000 Canadian service stations offered ethanol blends ranging from 5-10%. Getting more ethanol-heavy fuel mixes will be difficult when there are still so fewFlex-fuel vehicles (FFVs). E85 is used to fuel the vehicle fleet of Natural Resources Canada, but there are few such vehicles elsewhere. Likewise, biodiesel is used by government vehicle fleets, though in very low blends.

  1. Daynard, Karen. ,Daynard, Terry. 2011. What are the effects of biofuels and bioproducts on the environment, crop and food prices and world hunger? KD Communications. Retrieved at: http://gfo.ca/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=HKfOeU3cHTI%3d&tabid=793.
  2. Natural Resources Canada. 2010. Next-generation biofuels. Alternative Fuel Facts. Retrieved at: http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/transportation/alternative-fuels/programs/next-gen-fund/next-gen-biofuels.cfm?attr=8.
  3. Natural Resources Canada. 2010. Next-generation biofuels. Alternative Fuel Facts. Retrieved at: http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/transportation/alternative-fuels/programs/next-gen-fund/next-gen-biofuels.cfm?attr=8.
  4. APEC 2008
  5. APEC 2008
  6. APEC 2008
  7. Natural Resources Canada. 2010. Next-generation biofuels. Alternative Fuel Facts. Retrieved at: http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/transportation/alternative-fuels/programs/next-gen-fund/next-gen-biofuels.cfm?attr=8.
  8. Canadian Renewable Fuels Association. 2010. Retrieved at: http://www.greenfuels.org/en/resource-centre/biodiesel.aspx
  9. APEC 2008
  10. Taylor, S. 2011. Canada proposes July 1 start for biodiesel rule. Reuters. Ed. Frank McGurty. Retrieved at: http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/02/10/canada-biodiesel-idUSN1021406220110210.
  11. APEC 2008

Biofuels in B.C.

British Columbia has an abundance of natural biomass resources, including sawmill residues, mountain pine beetle affected timber, logging debris, and agricultural and municipal wastes. To enhance B.C.'s leadership role and help meet the province's electricity needs for clean, renewable power, the Department of Energy, Mines, and Petroleum Resources initiated a new Bioenergy Strategy. The strategy sets ambitious goals for the adoption of cellulosic feedstocks for electricity production.

In 2007, BC produced upwards of 900,000 tonnes of wood pellets, 90% of which were destined for overseas thermal power plants.

B.C.'s several biomass power plants can be found on our Electricity Sources Map.

The British Columbia wood pellet industry demonstrates a substantial contribution to the European Union market for bioenergy feedstock. In 2007, BC produced upwards of 900,000 tonnes of wood pellets, 90% of which were destined for overseas thermal power plants. The majority of the BC Bionergy Strategy depends on advances in cellulosic conversion technology. Currently, the fibrous cellulose in plant material demands processes that are not yet cost-competitive with first generation feedstocks, like corn.

By 2020, it aims for the province's biofuel production to meet 50 per cent or more of the province's renewable fuel requirements, in support of general goals to reduce transportation sector greenhouse gas emissions. Another goal is to develop at least 10 community energy projects that convert local biomass into energy.

  1. BC Bioenergy Strategy. 2010. Retrieved at: http://www.energyplan.gov.bc.ca/bioenergy/PDF/BioEnergy_Plan_005_0130_web0000.pdf.
  2. Yacobucci, B. 2009. Fuel Ethanol: Background and Public Policy Issues. Ch 2. Ethanol and Biofuels Production, Standards and Potential. Ed. W. Leland. Nova Science Publishers. New York.

Bibliography


To ensure continuity of material, all of the external web pages referenced here were cached in May 2012.

Readers are recommended to explore the current links for any changes.

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De Castro, Julio. ‘Biofuels -- An overview.’ (2007). Accessed May 31, 2012.

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Tokgoz, S., A. Elobeid, J. Fabiosa, D. Hayes, B. Babcock, T. Yu, F. Dong, C. Hart, J. Beghin. ‘Emerging biofuels: Outlook of effects on U.S. grain, oilseed, and livestock markets.’ Staff Report 07-SR-101, Center for Agricultural and Rural Development, Iowa State University. Ames, Iowa (2007). Accessed May 31, 2012.

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When no treaty was signed between the government, and no war was fought over the land, first nations groups in Canada are entitled to the land on which they have historically lived and still inhabit.
In solar thermal energy collectors, the Absorber Area refers to the area absorbing the radiation
A technique where acidic solutions are pumped into a well, melting away debris about the bottom of the well and allowing the gas to flow more freely.
An electrical current that reverses its direction at regularly recurring intervals. Abbreviated to AC.
A series of processes in which microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen. Used for industrial and/or domestic purposes to manage waste and/or release energy.
A device used for measuring wind speed.
The average speed (and direction) of the wind over the course of a year.
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC): A 21-nation group of Pacific-Rim nations that seeks to promote free trade, raise living standards, education levels and sustainable economic policies. Canada is a member.
The artificially increased discharge of water during the operation of hydroelectric turbines during periods of peak demand.
Small particles released into the atmosphere as part of the flue gases from a coal plant. Fly ash is dangerous for human health but most power plants use electrostatic precipitators to capture it before release.
The waters off the Atlantic provinces that has been producing oil and gas since the 1990s, and continues to have considerable untapped oil and gas potential. The region has similar geology to the oil-rich North Sea.
'The ionizing radiation which we are all inescapably exposed to every day. It comes from radon gas in the ground, the sun, distant supernovas, and even elements inside our own bodies. The average exposure is around 361 mrem per year for a person in Washington state (it varies by region).
Base-load power is that provided continuously, virtually year-round to satisfy a regions minimum electricity needs. Hydro and nuclear power are well-suited for base-load grid needs.
A renewable fuel in which soy or canola oil is refined through a special process and blended with standard diesel oil. Biodiesel does not contain ethanol, but research is underway to develop diesel blends with ethanol.
Renewable energy made available from materials derived from biological sources.
Natural gas, or methane, that is created by microbes consuming organic matter. Usually found near the Earths surface and is usually immediately released into the atmosphere.
Biological material from living, or recently living organisms such as trees, grasses, and agricultural crops. As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly, or converted into other energy products such as biofuel.
A facility that integrates biomass conversion processes and equipment to produce fuels, power, and chemicals from biomass. The biorefinery concept is analogous to petroleum refineries, which produce multiple fuels and products from petroleum.
Bitumen is "petroleum that exists in the semi-solid or solid phase in natural deposits. Bitumen is a thick, sticky form of crude oil, so heavy and viscous (thick) that it will not flow unless heated or diluted with lighter hydrocarbons. At room temperature, it is much like cold molasses."
Bottom Ash: Bottom ash are small particles that result from coal combustion, but unlike fly ash they are too heavy to be released into the atmosphere and must be stored.
Canadian Environmental Protection Act: Passed in 1999, CEPA is "An Act respecting pollution prevention and the protection of the environment and human health in order to contribute to sustainable development."
Cap and Trade: A system where the government sets a limit on how much of a pollutant may be emitted. It then sells the rights to emit that pollutant to companies, known as carbon credits, and allows them to trade the credits with other companies. The EU has implemented a cap and trade program for carbon dioxide.
Carbon Footprint: A calculation based on the set of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions caused by an organization, event, product, or person.
Carbon Sink: A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores carbon-containing chemical compounds for an indefinite period.
Carbon Monoxide: A deadly gas produced from the tailpipe of cars that burn gasoline.
Capacity Factor: The ratio of the actual output of a power plant over a period of time and its potential to output if it had operated at full nameplate capacity the entire time.
Cellulose: An organic compound consisting of several hundred to over ten thousand linked glucose units. Cellulose comprises the structural component of the cell wall in plants, many green algae. It is the most common organic compound on Earth comprising about 33% of plant matter.
Cellulosic Biomass: Fuel produced from wood, grasses, or the non-edible parts of plants that is mainly comprised of cellulose.
Cellulosic Feedstock: The inedible cellulose which comprises most plants and trees. Yields are much higher as any part of the plant can be used and because they do not compete with food, therefore, cellulosic feedstock is an ideal candidate for large scale sustainable biofuel production.
Cetane Rating: Also known as cetane number (CN), this is a measurement of the combustion quality of diesel fuel during compression ignition. It is a significant expression of diesel fuel quality.
Clean Power Call: A request sent out by B.C. Hydro to private power utilities for new electricity-generating projects totalling 5,000 GWh/year. B.C. Hydro will help fund the successful projects and then buy power from them once completed.
How efficiently a turbine converts the energy in wind into electricity. Just divide the electrical power output by the wind energy input.
Using the energy left over from one primary energy conversion to fuel another. The most prominent example of this are natural gas co-generation plants which first feed fuel into a gas turbine. The residual heat from that reaction then heats water to spin a steam turbine.
Collector Area: In solar thermal energy collectors, the Collector Area refers to the area that intercepts the solar radiation.
A mixture of hydrocarbons present in natural gas. When gas is lowered below the hydrocarbon dew point, a condensate, that is, a liquid, forms. These can be used for combustion just like oil and gas. These are also known as natural gas liquids.
Generation of electricity using fossil fuels.
Gas reserves that form beneath porous layers of sandstone. Until recently this has been the only kind of gas commercially extracted.
When bituminous coal is baked at high temperatures it fuses together ash and carbon, creating coke. Coke can then be used to reduce the oxygen content of iron, strengthening it and creating steel.
A force generated by to the earths rotation which deflects a body of fluid or gas moving relative to the earths surface to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. It is at its maximum at the poles and zero at the equator.
Decentralized Electricity Generation: Decentralizated electricity generation is a concept used to describe a large number of dispersed energy generators, often closely integrated with the people that use the electricity. Wind turbines and solar panels are good examples: they can be put within communities, be owned by members of the community and generate electricity for it. Alternatively centralized energy generation, far more common in North America, is where a small number of large plants owned by utility companies (hydro-electric, nuclear or fossil fuel) generate large quantities of electricity.
The portion of the oil business that involves refining the crude oil, bringing it to market and selling it. Gasoline service stations are the most lucrative part of downstream operations.
Effluents: Gases or liquids released by a human-made structure, in this case flue gases from a coal-fired power plant.
Electrolyte: Usually a solution of acids, bases, or salts, electrolytes are substances with free ions which make them effective electrical conductors.
Electrolysis: A simple technique for splitting water atoms to obtain hydrogen, driven by an electrical current.
Requirements that set specific limits to the amount of pollutants that can be released into the environment by automobiles and other powered vehicles, as well as emissions generated by industry, power plants, and small equipment.
Transforming one form of energy into another. Most energy conversions that run our economy are conversions from a primary source to electricity (wind or nuclear) or movement (oil).
Energy Currency: Energy that is usable for practical purposes. These include electricity and petroleum which power appliances and vehicles.
A measurement of the amount of energy stored in a given volume.
Energy Return On Investment (EROI): This is the ratio of usable energy obtained over the amount of energy required to get it. The oil sands has a low EROI because instead of being sucked out of the ground in liquid form the oil must be painstakingly mined and heavily refined, a process that requires large quantities of energy itself.
An energy source is the means by which energy is generated. The energy profiles each deal with a different source of energy, and most are simply means to attain the energy currency we all use: electricity.
Enhanced Geothermal System: A new technology, EGS does not require natural convective geothermal resources, but instead can draw power from the ground through extremely dry and impermeable rock.
The provincial Environmental Assessment Office is a politically neutral agency tasked with reviewing major construction projects in B.C. Their purview includes assessing the environmental, economic, social, heritage and health effects over the lifecycle of projects.
A blend of ethanol and diesel fuel. plus other additives, designed to reduce air pollution from heavy equipment, city buses and other vehicles that operate on diesel engines.
A policy device that encourages investment in renewable energies, usually by guaranteeing power producers that their energy will be bought.
In food processing, fermentation is the conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts, bacteria or a combination thereof, under anaerobic conditions. In simple terms, fermentation is the chemical conversion of sugars to ethanol.
A finite, or non-renewable resource, is one where a limited amount exists. Once the existing stocks of that resource are exhausted there will be no more, at least in any reasonable human time scale. Only so much fossil fuels and uranium exist on earth, making these finite, non-renewableresources. The wind, sun and tides are renewable resources since it is impossible to run out of them.
First Generation Renewable: Well established renewable technologies that emerged early on in the Industrial Revolution. These include hydropower, biomass combustion and early geothermal power.
Fission is a nuclear reaction where a heavy atom is hit by a neutron, causing it to split into lighter atoms, release more neutrons, and huge amounts of energy.
Flat-plate collectors are a type of non-concentrating solar energy collector, typically used when temperatures are below 200 degrees F. They are often used for heating buildings.
Flex-Fuel Vehicle: Also known as a dual-fuel vehicle, this is an alternative fuel vehicle with an internal combustion engine designed to run on more than one fuel, usually gasoline blended with either ethanol or methanol fuel.
Flue gases are the gases that are released into the atmosphere by a flue, or pipe, from the steam boiler.
Many biofuel feedstocks such as corn, sugarcane, and soybeans are also key sources of food for millions of people. Production of crops for bioenergy may displace other food-related crops, increasing the cost and decreasing the availability of food. The central question is one of ethics: Should we use our limited land resources to grow biofuels when the same land could be producing food for people?
Fracking: Hydraulic fracturing is the process of injecting high pressure fluids into deep, geologic formations, in order to fracture the rock and render it more permeable.
Fuel Crops: Crops grown specifically for their value as fuel to make biofuels or for their energy content.
Fumaroles: Openings in the Earths crust that emit steam and gases.
Gasohol: Otherwise known as fuel ethanol, gasohol has been distilled and dehydrated to create a high-octane, water free alcohol. All water must be removed because a water-alcohol mixture cannot dissolve in gasoline. Fuel ethanol is made unfit for drinking by adding a small amount of a noxious substance such as gasoline.
Geothermal Gradient: The rate at which temperature increases deeper into the earth, towards the earth's molten core.
Geothermal Task Force Team is a government program that aims to: develop policies, in collaboration with affected agencies, related to tenure issuance, examine the regulation of the use of geothermal resources not currently covered by legislation, build a royalty and resource rent model for geothermal resources, and develop a science based review of the known geothermal resources in the province.
Geyser: Springs characterized by intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and accompanied by steam.
Giromill Turbine: Uses lift forces generated by vertical aerofoils to convert wind energy into rotational mechanical energy. They are powered by two or three vertical aerofoils attached to a central mast by horizontal supports.
Glut: A situation where the market has been flooded with goods and there is more supply than there is demand causing the price of goods to drop.
Gravity Survey: A technique of measuring minute changes in the Earths gravity field. This allows geologists to map lighter and denser rocks underground.
Green Energy and Green Economy Act of 2009: Legislation by the province of B.C. to boost the investment in renewable energy projects and increase conservation, create green jobs and economic growth in Ontario. Part of Ontario's plan to become a leading green economy in North America.
Head: The term head refers to the change in elevation of the water.
Head Differential: The difference in pressure due to the difference in height of water level.
Heat Exchangers: These are used in High-Temperature and Low-Temperature applications to transfer heat from one medium to another. In Low-Temperature Geoexchange systems they are built into the heat pump.
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT): Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine. These are the most common types of wind turbines and look like aircraft propellers mounted atop towers.
Hydrocarbons: A compound of almost entirely hydrogen and carbon. This covers oil and natural gas. Coal, the third fossil fuel, contains so many impurities it is usually disqualified from this title.
Hydrostatic Head: The distance a volume of water has to fall in order to generate power.
Intermittent Energy Source: Any source of energy that is not continuously available due to a factor that is outside of direct control (ex. Wind speed or sunshine).
An internal combustion engine operates by burning its fuel inside the engine, rather than outside of it, as an external, or steam engine does. The most common internal combustion engine type is gasoline powered, followed by diesel, hydrogen, methane, and propane. Engines typically require adaptations (like adjusting the air/fuel ratio) to run on a different kind of fuel than they were designed for. Four-stroke internal combustion engines (each stroke marks a step in the combustion cycle) dominate the automotive and industrial realm today.
Kinetic Energy: The ability of water falling from a dam to do work, that is, to generate electricity. Water stored above a dam has potential energy which turns to kinetic energy once it begins to fall.
Levelized Cost of Electricity: The cost of generating electricity (capital, operation and maintenance costs). Measured in units of currency per unit of electricity (ex. kWh).
Magnetic Survey: A technique for measuring the intensity of magnetic fields from several stations.
Manhattan Project: The massive Anglo-American-Canadian scientific undertaking which produced the atomic bombs that helped end the Second World War. It marked the birth of the nuclear age and scientists were immediately aware of the potential to use use nuclear power for civilian use.
Market Penetration: The share of the total energy market a specific energy source has in relation to its competitors. So the market penetration of wind power would be measured by its share of the electricity market, while ethanol would be compared to other vehicle fuels, not to total primary energy use.
Matrix: In geology, this is the finer mass of tiny sediments in which larger sediments are embedded.
Methanol: Methanol is produced naturally in the anaerobic metabolism of many types of bacteria, and is ubiquitous in the environment. Methanol is toxic in humans if ingested or contacted on the skin. For its toxic properties and close boiling point with ethanol, that it is used as a denaturant for ethanol.
Miscanthus: A low maintenance perennial grass which is thought to be twice as productive as switch grass as it has a longer growing season, greater leaf area, and higher carbon storage per unit of leaf area.
MMBtu: A unit of measurement which means a million Btus (British thermal units). A Btu is roughly the amount of energy it takes to heat a half kilogram of water from 3.8 to 4.4 °C. MBtu is used for a thousand Btus.
Moderator: A moderator is used to slow down neutrons, which enables them to react with the atoms in the nuclear fuel. If enough atoms react then the reactor can sustain a nuclear chain reaction.
M Mount St. Helens is an active volcano located in Washington state. It is most famous for its catastrophic eruption on May 18, 1980 where fifty-seven people were killed, 250 homes, 47 bridges, 24 km of railways, and 298 km of highway were destroyed.
Mud-Pools: Pools of bubbling mud. Also known as "paint-pots" when the slurry of usually grey mud is streaked with red or pink spots from iron compounds.
Nacelle: The housing atop a wind turbine that holds the gearbox, generator, drive train and brakes, as well as the rotors.
Name-Plate Capacity: The intended full-load sustained output of a power plant. For example an average wind turbine's name-plate capacity is 2 Megawatts. The capacity factor is the actual output, so for that 2 MW wind turbine with an efficiency of around 30-35% (average) then it has a more realistic capacity of around 0.7 MW. Most power stations are listed in terms of their nameplate capacity.
National Energy Board: A regulatory agency established by the federal government in 1959 that is primarily tasked with regulating oil and gas pipelines that cross provincial and national borders.
National Energy Program: A set of policies enacted in 1980 that sought to make Canada energy independent. Petro-Canada was created and oil prices were kept artificially low to protect consumers. Shares of oil revenue were diverted to the federal government who used them mostly in the eastern provinces to offset a decline in manufacturing. The program was extremely unpopular in western Canada and was discontinued shortly thereafter.
Nuclear Renaissance: A term used by politicians and the media for the renewed interest in nuclear energy in the past decade. Many countries are now expanding their civilian nuclear programs.
Octane: The octane rating of a fuel is indicated on the pump – using numbers such as 87, 90, 91 etc. The higher the number, the greater the octane rating of the gasoline.
Oil in Place: The total hydrocarbon (oil and gas) content of a reservoir. Sometimes called STOOIP or Stock Tank Original Oil In Place.
Oil Patch: A term for the Canadian oil industry. This specifically means the upstream operations that find and extract oil and gas, mostly in Alberta but also B.C., the other prairie provinces, Newfoundland and Labrador.
Oil Window: The range of temperature at which oil forms. Below a certain temperature and kerogen will never progress to the form of oil. Too high and natural gas is formed instead.
OECD: The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development is a 34 country organization dedicated to advocating democracy and the market economy. Membership is largely limited to Western Europe, North America, Australia and Japan, what are often considered the world's developed nations. Sometimes referred to in the media as the "rich countries' club".
Passive Seismic Survey: A way to detect oil and gas by measuring the Earths natural low frequency movements.
Peak Power Demand: Power demand varies over minutes, hours, days and months. Peak power demand are the times when the most people are using the most power. To meet this demand extra sources of power must be switched on. Some forms of electricity generation, such as natural gas turbines, can be turned on quickly to meet peak power demand and are better suited for this purpose than others, such as nuclear, which are better as sources of baseload power.
Permeability: A measure of the ability of a porous rock to allow fluids to pass through it. High permeability in the surrounding rocks is needed for the formation of gas reserves.
Photovoltaic Cell: A non-mechanical device typically fabricated from silicon alloys that generates electricity from direct sunlight.
Pickens Plan: Investment of $1 trillion into wind power in the U.S.A., named for an American oil tycoon. The plan aims to reduce the amount of foreign oil imported to the U.S.A. while providing economic and environmental benefits.
Pondage: The main difference between small and large hydro projects is the existence of stored power in the form of water which is held back by dams at large hydro stations. Some small hydro projects have pondage, however, which are small ponds behind the weir of a dam which can store water for up to a week.
Potential Energy: The energy stored in a body or a system.
Porosity: Closely related to permeability, this is a measure of the amount of "voids," or empty space in a rock where gas or oil can pass through to collect in a reservoir.
Possible Reserves: Possible reserves are a class of unproven reserves that geologists use for oil that they are only 10% sure is present in the ground.
Purchasing Power Agreement: A contract between two parties, one who generates power for sale, and another who is looking to purchase it. B.C. Hydro buys power from companies that build their own power generating stations.
Primary Battery: A primary battery is one that is non-rechargable because the electrochemical reaction goes only one way. It gives out energy and cannot be reversed.
Primary Gas: The degeneration of decayed organic matter directly into gas through a process called "thermal cracking." This is opposed to secondary gas which is formed from decayed oil that has already formed.
Probable Reserves: Probable reserves are a class of unproven reserves that geologists use for oil or gas that they are at least 50% sure is actually present.
Proven Reserves: An amount of a resource any resource to be dug out of the ground (oil, coal, natural gas or uranium in energy terms) that geologists have a 90% or higher certainty can be extracted for a commercial gain with the technology available at the time."
Recompleted: The process, by which an old oil well is redrilled, fractured, or has some other technology applied to improve the amount of oil recovered.
Reforming: In oil refining, reforming is using heat to break down, or crack, hydrocarbon atoms and increase their octane level. This technique creates some left-over hydrogen which can be collected and used.
Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS): Law that requires electric utilities to produce some portion of their power from renewable sources like wind, solar, geothermal or biomass. RPSs are necessary to keep renewables competitive in an era of cheap natural gas electricity.
Rent-Seeking: The practice of using resources to compete for existing wealth rather than to create new wealth, often to the detriment of those who seek to reform societies or institutions. Economies that fail to diversify away from oil are often pre-dominated by a rent-seeking mind-set where people become more pre-occupied with securing the windfall resouce profits for themselves, usually oil, rather than seeking to develop new industries.
Reserves: The fraction of the oil in place that can be considered extractable. This depends not only on the geology, but the economics (is oil expensive enough to make extracting it profitable?) and technology.
Reserve Growth: When an oil or gas field is first discovered, reserve estimates tend to be low. The estimates of the size of the field are expected to grow over time and this is called reserves growth.
Ring of Fire: The Pacific Ring of Fire is a region of high volcanic and seismic activity that surrounds the majority of the Pacific Ocean. This region is essentially a horseshoe of geologic activity, characterized by volcanoes, earthquakes, deep sea trenches, and major fault zones.
Riparian: The term riparian refers to the wetland area surrounding rivers or streams. A riparian ecosystem refers to the biological community supported by an area around a river.
Savonius Turbine: Uses drag generated by the wind hitting the cup, like aerofoils, to create rotation.
Second Generation Wind Turbine: Technology that is only now beginning to enter the market as a result of research, development and demonstration. These are: solar, wind, tidal, advanced geothermal and modern bioenergy. Much hope has been placed upon these technologies but they still provide only a fraction of our energy.
Secondary Battery: Rechargable batteries are sometimes known as secondary batteries because their electro-chemical reactions can be reversed.
Secondary Gas: When oil is subjected to so much heat and pressure it degenerates into gas. The process through which this happens called "thermal cracking."
Secondary Recovery Schemes: When so much oil has been sucked out of an oil reservoir it will lose pressure and the oil will no longer flow out of the reservoir from natural pressure. When this happens secondary recovery schemes can be employed. This means that fluids or gases are pumped into the well to increase pressure and push the remaining oil up out of the well.
Shale: A type of sedimentary rock with low permeability, which was once thought to prevent any commercial extraction of the gas inside. Fracking allows gas developers to access it.
Sound Navigation and Ranging (SONAR): Initially devised as a technique for detecting submarines. An emitter sends off pulses of sound. The pulses bounce off objects and return to a receiver which interprets their size and distance.
Spot Market: A market where commodities are traded for immediate delivery. A future market on the other hand is one where delivery is expected later on. Because of the dependence of gas users on those who are at the other end of the gas pipeline, the natural gas market is mostly a futures market.
Steam Coal: Steam coal is coal used for power generation in thermal power plants. This is typically coal that ranges in quality from sub-bituminous to bituminous.
Straight Vegetable Oil (SVO): Vegetable oil fuel. Most diesel engine vehicles can run on it so long as the viscosity of the oil is lowered enough for complete combustion. Failure to do this can damage the engine. SVO is also known as pure plant oil or PPO.
Strategic Petroleum Reserve: An emergency store of oil maintained by some governments and corporations. The U.S. Department of Energy holds 727 million barrels of oil.
Subcritical Power Plant: A coal-fired power plant that operates at less than 550ËšC. Because the temperatures and pressures are than other plants, these plants operate at a low efficiency, around 33-35%. These plants are still the most common in the world and many are under construction
Supercritical Power Plant: Supercritical plants are coal powered power plants that can sustain temperatures of 550ËšC to 590ËšC and transfer up to 40% of the coals energy into power. This technology has only come into use in recent years. Most new coal-fired power plants built in the West are supercritical.
Switchgrass: One of the dominant native species of the North American prairies, tallgrass is being researched as a renewable bioenergy crop. It is a a native perennial warm season grass with the ability to produce moderate to high yields on marginal farmlands.
Thermal Power Plant: A thermal power plant is any that is powered by a steam turbine. The steam is created by heating water which in turn spins the turbine. Most coal and gas power stations operate in this way, as do all nuclear plants. Coal powered and gas plants are often just called thermal plants.
Total Carbon Cost: The amount of carbon dioxide emitted during an action or a process. One exmaple is building a natural gas plant. The total carbon cost would include everything from the carbon emitted to get the materials to build the plant, to the carbon emitted in the building of the plant, and the carbon emitted during the operation of the plant.
Unconventional Gas: Unconventional gas reserves come in many different geological formations, and include tight gas, shale gas, coalbed methane and methane hydrates. Extraction of these sources has only just begun and has hugely extended the lives of many gas fields and unlocking many new ones. The unlocking of unconventional gas reserves in the last five years has revolutionized the global energy system.
Ultracritical Power Plant: These are coal thermal power plants that operate above 590ËšC and can attain efficiencies above 40%. These plants are just coming into service.
Undiscovered Reserves: The amount of oil and gas estimated to exist in unexplored areas. Much of B.C. has not been thoroughly explored for fossil fuel potential and many of the estimates of B.C. fossil fuel resources rely on the concept of undiscovered resources
United States Geological Survey (USGS): The United States Geological Survey. The department responsible for estimating American fossil fuel reserves. They also conduct many studies that span the globe.
Unproven Reserves: Oil reserves in the ground that petroleum geologists are less certain are there, but have strong reason to believe is present. Unproven reserves can be broken down into probable reserves and possible reserves. These numbers are used within oil companies but not usually published.
The portion of the oil business that involves finding oil and extracting it.
Uranium is a heavy metal that is naturally radioactive. An isotope, U-235 can be enriched to support a nuclear chain reaction. Uranium is used in many nuclear power plants.
A 2,730 MW dam built in north-eastern British Columbia along the Peace River during the 1960s.
Any activity where humans bore down into the Earth to access reserves of oil or gas trapped in underground geological formations.
These are produced from wood residue (like sawdust) collected from sawmills and wood product manufacturers. Heat and pressure are used to transform wood residue into pellets without chemical additives, binders or glue. The pellets can be used in stoves and boilers.
A remote mountain in Western Nevada where the U.S. Department of Energy has planned on storing all of the country's spent nuclear fuel underground since the 1990s. The proposal met stiff opposition from local residents and in 2009 the project was cancelled.
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